SUPREME COURT CASE BACKLOG AT RECORD HIGH
TOPIC: (GS2) GOVERNANCE: THE HINDU
The Supreme Court’s case pendency has touched an unprecedented level of over 88,000 cases, despite the court working with its full sanctioned strength of 34 judges.
Current Situation of Pendency
- As per the National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG), the SC currently has:
- Around 69,500+ civil cases pending.
- Around 18,800+ criminal cases pending.
- In August 2025, more cases were filed (over 7,000) than disposed of (over 5,600), meaning disposal was only about 80% of the fresh filings.
- The continuous rise in pendency has been observed since the pandemic years, with the number climbing steadily after 2023.
Steps Taken to Reduce Backlog
- Extended Summer Sitting: The CJI renamed the summer vacation as “partial working days”. During May–July 2025, 21 Benches heard cases in rotation to improve disposal.
- Maintaining Full Strength: Recent Chief Justices – from Justice Chandrachud to Justice Gavai – ensured the Supreme Court had no vacancies. Judicial appointments are being cleared by the government swiftly, sometimes within 48 hours.
- Increased Workload Recognition: A collegium resolution in November 2023 emphasized that even one vacancy in the SC was unaffordable due to the rising burden.
Trends in Case Filing and Disposal
- In 2025 (till September): Over 52,000 cases were filed. Around 46,000 cases were disposed of (~88% disposal rate).
- However, since filings consistently outnumber disposals, pendency keeps climbing.
- Similar trends were witnessed in 2024, when pendency had already crossed 82,000 cases.
Key Issues
- Rising Workload: Increasing volume of cases is straining judicial capacity.
- Systemic Limitations: Even full bench strength is not enough to clear backlog.
- Public Impact: Delay in justice delivery weakens trust in the judiciary.
RECOMMENDATIONS OF DIFFERENT COMMISSIONS TO REDUCE CASE PENDENCY
Law Commission of India
- Increase Judge Strength – India has fewer judges per million population compared to global standards; needs more recruitment.
- Fast-Track Courts – set up special courts for cases like sexual offences, corruption, and economic crimes.
- Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) – promote mediation, arbitration, and conciliation to reduce burden on regular courts.
- Case Management – strict timelines for filing replies, arguments, and adjournments.
Justice Malimath Committee (2000–2003) on Criminal Justice Reforms
- Greater Use of Plea Bargaining – to settle minor criminal cases quickly.
- Strengthen Investigations – better trained police and forensic support to avoid delays.
- Witness Protection – to reduce repeated adjournments caused by absence or threats to witnesses.
Arrears Committee (Justice V.S. Malimath, 1989)
- Curtail Adjournments – limit the number of times hearings can be postponed.
- Court Management System – better infrastructure and trained staff to assist judges.
- Prioritise Old Cases – dispose of cases pending for more than 5 years on priority.
National Court Management Systems (NCMS), 2012
- Performance Standards – set timeframes for disposal of different categories of cases.
- Court Managers – appoint professionals (non-judges) to handle administrative tasks, so judges focus only on judicial work.
- Technology Use – e-courts, digital filing, and video conferencing to save time.
Conclusion
The Supreme Court’s ever-growing case backlog shows that increasing judge strength and extending sittings alone are not enough. Comprehensive judicial reforms, including better case management and reducing inflow of routine matters to the apex court, are needed to ensure timely justice.
HOUSE PANEL RECOMMENDATIONS ON AI AND FAKE NEWS
TOPIC: (GS2) GOVERNANCE: THE HINDU
A parliamentary committee has suggested that the government explore licensing requirements for AI content creators and make it mandatory to label AI-generated content.
Background
- Fake news and deepfakes pose risks to public order, democratic institutions, and social trust.
- Rapid progress in Artificial Intelligence (AI) has made creating realistic but misleading content easier.
Key Recommendations of the Parliamentary Panel
- Licensing for AI Content Creators: Explore feasibility of requiring registration or licensing for those creating AI-generated content.
- Mandatory Labelling: Make it compulsory to clearly mark AI-generated videos, images, and texts.
- Legal Measures: Update penal laws, impose higher fines, and fix accountability on individuals/organisations spreading fake content.
- Fact-Checking Systems: All print, digital, and broadcast media outlets should have internal fact-checking mechanisms and ombudsmen.
- Technology Solutions: Encourage research on tools for detecting fake speech and deepfake videos.
- Inter-Ministerial Coordination: Ensure cooperation among the Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Ministry of Electronics and IT (MeitY), and other relevant departments.
Challenges
- AI, in its present stage, cannot independently fact-check information as it depends on existing online data.
- Misinformation spreads faster than corrections, making timely detection and action difficult.
- Balancing regulation with freedom of expression is essential to avoid misuse.
Way Forward
- Build strong technological infrastructure for detection of AI-generated misinformation.
- Strengthen digital literacy programmes to help citizens identify fake or misleading content.
- Frame clear guidelines on ethical AI use in media and communication.
- Encourage global cooperation as fake news and deepfakes often transcend borders.
Conclusion
The panel’s recommendations underline the urgent need for India to prepare a balanced legal and technological framework to counter fake news and deepfakes. Responsible AI regulation, awareness, and stronger accountability can safeguard democracy and public trust.
GLOBAL PLASTIC POLLUTION CRISIS
TOPIC: (GS3) ENVIRONMENT: THE HINDU
World Environment Day 2025 focused on the theme “Ending Plastic Pollution”, highlighting the growing dangers of plastics to the environment and human health.
Scale of the Problem
- Rising Production: Global plastic output doubled between 2000–2019, reaching 460 million tonnes. Waste rose to 353 million tonnes in the same period.
- Short Lifecycle: Around two-thirds of plastic products last less than five years; major contributors include packaging (40%), consumer goods (12%), and textiles (11%).
- Low Recycling Rates: Only 9% is recycled; 50% goes to landfills, while 22% leaks into the environment.
- Marine Impact: Each year, nearly 11 million tonnes enter oceans, adding to the estimated 200 million tonnes already present. If trends continue, there may be more plastic than fish in oceans by mid-century.
- Climate Link: Plastics contribute 3.4% of global greenhouse gas emissions, and could account for 19% of the global carbon budget by 2040.
Why It Is a Serious Concern
- Plastics are non-biodegradable; they fragment into micro and nano-plastics that contaminate soil, water, and air.
- These particles enter the food chain, threatening human health and ecosystem balance.
- Plastic pollution undermines sustainable development, biodiversity protection, and climate goals.
GLOBAL RESPONSES & REMEDIES
- UN Resolution (2022): 193 nations agreed to negotiate a legally binding treaty to end plastic pollution.
- UNEP Target: Reduce plastic waste by 80% within 20 years through:
- Limiting unnecessary and single-use plastics.
- Expanding recycling and product redesign.
- Promoting alternative eco-friendly materials.
- Imposing landfill/incineration taxes to encourage recycling.
- Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and deposit-refund schemes.
Indian Initiatives
- Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016, amended in 2022): Ban on identified single-use plastic items.
- Swachh Bharat Mission: Awareness and waste segregation drives.
- Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Mandates producers to collect and recycle plastic waste.
- National Green Tribunal (NGT): Monitoring compliance on plastic ban.
- Promotion of biodegradable and compostable alternatives.
Way Forward
- Strengthen R&D for sustainable materials and advanced recycling technologies.
- Develop profitable markets for recycled plastics to reduce dependence on virgin plastics.
- Enhance international cooperation to finalize and implement the global plastics treaty.
- Encourage public participation through awareness campaigns and adoption of green alternatives.
- Ensure strict enforcement of bans on single-use plastics and incentivize eco-friendly innovation.
Conclusion:
The plastic pollution crisis is both an environmental and developmental challenge. A mix of global cooperation, strong domestic policies, innovation, and responsible consumption is essential to secure a cleaner and healthier future.
SUPREME COURT GUIDELINES ON DNA EVIDENCE
TOPIC: (GS2) INDIAN POLITY: THE HINDU
The Supreme Court, in Kattavellai @ Devakar v. State of Tamil Nadu, issued uniform guidelines for handling DNA samples in criminal cases.
Why the Directions Were Needed
- In the Devakar case (rape, murder, and robbery), vaginal swab samples were sent late to the Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL).
- The chain of custody was unclear, raising doubts about contamination.
- Different states follow different procedures, creating inconsistency.
- To ensure uniformity and prevent tampering, the Court stepped in despite “Police” being a State subject.
Key Guidelines Issued by the Supreme Court
Collection and Documentation
- DNA samples must be carefully collected, packaged, and labeled with details like FIR number, date, statute sections, investigating officer, and police station.
- The collection record should carry the signatures of the medical professional, investigating officer, and independent witnesses.
Transportation to FSL
- The investigating officer must transport the samples safely to the concerned FSL within 48 hours.
- If there is any delay, it must be recorded with reasons, and preservation steps must be ensured.
Storage During Trial/Appeal
- Once sealed, samples cannot be opened, resealed, or altered without the express order of the trial court.
Chain of Custody Register
- A register documenting every stage from collection to the final verdict must be maintained.
- It should be part of the trial record, and any lapses must be explained by the investigating officer.
Supreme Court’s Stand on DNA Reliability
- Anil v. State of Maharashtra (2014): DNA evidence is reliable if lab procedures follow strict quality control.
- Manoj v. State of Madhya Pradesh (2022): DNA report rejected as the sample was from an open area and possibly contaminated.
- Rahul v. State of Delhi (2022): DNA evidence discarded due to a two-month delay in police custody, raising doubts of tampering.
- Court stressed both collection outside labs and analysis inside labs must follow scientific standards.
Nature of DNA Evidence
- DNA can be extracted from blood, hair, semen, saliva, bone, or skin.
- A match shows biological origin but is treated as opinion evidence under Section 45 of the Evidence Act (now Section 39 of the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023).
- Alone, it is not conclusive proof for conviction; it must be corroborated with other evidence.
Conclusion:
The Supreme Court’s directions strengthen the reliability of DNA evidence by ensuring strict collection, preservation, and custody standards. While DNA is a powerful investigative tool, it remains supporting evidence and not sole proof in criminal trials.
COTTON IMPORT DUTY CUTS
TOPIC: (GS3) ECONOMY: THE HINDU
The government recently removed the import duty on cotton, triggering protests from farmers while the textile industry welcomed the decision.
Cotton Trade Trends in India
- Cotton has been central to India’s textile sector since Independence.
- Growth phases:
- Post-Partition – Intensive Cotton Production Programme increased domestic output.
- 1970s – Hybrid cotton introduced.
- 1999–2014 – Technology Mission on Cotton improved productivity and quality.
- 2002/2006 onwards – Bt cotton spread widely, especially in western, southern, and northern zones.
- After 2004-05, exports of medium and long-staple cotton rose sharply, driven by international demand.
- Domestic supply expansion reduced earlier reliance on imports and encouraged cotton ginning industries.
Current Concerns: Price Parity and Imports
- Despite progress, imports surged by 77% in 2024-25, even when duties were in place.
- Main reason: domestic cotton is costlier than international prices.
- India’s cotton chain – from farmers to ginners, spinners, mills, and garment exporters – is closely tied to global markets, making it vulnerable to international price swings.
- MSP serves as a floor price, but mills prefer cheaper imports when global prices fall.
- The Cotton Corporation of India (CCI) procures heavily when prices dip; by June 2025, it purchased 34% of production, among the highest in recent years.
Challenges in Domestic Cotton Production
- Falling production and acreage – Cotton area fell by 8.7% in 2024-25 as farmers shifted to paddy, soybean, and groundnut.
- Low productivity – India’s average yield (437 kg/hectare) lags behind the global average (833 kg/hectare), Brazil (1,903), and China (2,257).
- Bt Hybrid Limitations – Over 95% of acreage uses old Bt hybrids, which have lost potency against pests like the pink bollworm.
- Rising cultivation costs – Reduces competitiveness for farmers.
Research and Development Gaps
- Global peers have advanced with Bollgard-III (Brazil, Australia) and CRISPR-based gene editing (China).
- India’s R&D investment in cotton remains among the lowest, limiting innovation.
- Need for public research focus on: Climate-resilient and pest-resistant seeds. Higher lint-to-seed ratio and improved yields.
Way Forward
- Balance farmer and industry needs by strengthening farm-to-firm linkages.
- Increase public investment in cotton R&D to upgrade technology.
- Ensure policies support both farmer incomes and industry competitiveness in global supply chains.
COTTON PLANT:
- Cotton is a fiber-yielding crop and is called “White Gold” in India.
- It grows well in tropical and subtropical regions.
- Needs black soil (regur soil) or alluvial soil with good drainage.
- Requires warm climate with temperature between 21°C to 30°C.
- Rainfall needed: 50–100 cm, but too much rain damages the crop.
- India is one of the largest producers of cotton in the world.
- Cotton belongs to the genus Gossypium.
- The main cotton-producing states in India are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Madhya Pradesh.
Conclusion:
Cotton duty cuts reveal the tension between protecting farmers and supporting the textile industry. A long-term solution lies in improving productivity, reducing costs, and investing in innovation to strengthen India’s cotton sector.
INDIA’S GROWTH–INFLATION BALANCE
TOPIC: (GS3) ECONOMY: THE HINDU
India’s retail inflation slightly increased in August 2025 after nine months of decline, but it remains within RBI’s tolerance band.
Current Inflation Trends
- Retail inflation rose in August but stayed at a comfortable level of 2.1%, within the RBI’s range of 2%-6%.
- Food inflation has stayed under control across urban and rural areas.
- Prices of essentials like vegetables and pulses saw sharp declines, easing household budgets.
- Other key categories such as housing, clothing, footwear, and fuel also recorded low inflation compared to July.
Contrast with Last Year
- In 2024, India experienced low growth with high inflation, straining the economy.
- In 2025, the situation has reversed to high growth with low inflation, improving macroeconomic stability.
- The gap between growth and inflation has widened to about 5.5 percentage points, a healthier scenario than last year’s narrow differential.
Global and Domestic Influences
Oil Imports:
- Even if India reduces Russian oil imports under global pressure, the effect on inflation will be limited due to currently low global crude prices.
- Discounts from Russia are no longer as significant as in 2022, reducing dependency risks.
GST Rate Changes:
- New GST rates effective from September 22 are expected to push inflation further down as several items will become cheaper.
Policy Outlook
- The RBI’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) is under pressure to reduce interest rates in response to the stable macroeconomic environment.
- While a rate cut in September is uncertain due to global volatility, a decision in December 2025 appears more likely if conditions remain favorable.
Significance for India’s Economy
- Stable inflation combined with strong growth supports consumer confidence and investment.
- Affordable food and essential goods strengthen social welfare, especially when combined with NFSA free grain provisions.
- India’s ability to balance growth and price stability enhances its position as a resilient emerging economy amid global uncertainties.
WHAT IS INFLATION?
Inflation means the rise in the general price level of goods and services over time. When inflation happens, the value of money decreases because the same amount of money buys fewer things.
Simple Example:
- Suppose you buy 1 kg of rice today for ₹50.
- Next year, the price of the same 1 kg of rice becomes ₹60.
- This ₹10 increase is inflation.
- Your money has less purchasing power now because ₹50, which earlier bought 1 kg rice, cannot buy the same quantity anymore.
Conclusion:
India’s current phase of low inflation and high growth offers a positive macroeconomic outlook. Sustained policy caution, careful oil strategies, and proactive fiscal measures will be key to maintaining this momentum.
CONSERVATION OF SALTWATER CROCODILES IN SUNDARBANS
TOPIC: (GS3) ENVIRONMENT: THE HINDU
A recent survey in the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve reported a rise in the population and age diversity of saltwater crocodiles.
Significance of the Survey
- Shows population growth and healthy breeding patterns of saltwater crocodiles.
- Demonstrates the effectiveness of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 when paired with projects like the Bhagabatpur Crocodile Project.
- Highlights a shift in conservation priorities from only charismatic species to less popular but ecologically important species.
Role of Crocodiles in Ecosystem
- As apex predators, they regulate prey populations and remove carcasses, keeping waterways clean.
- Their presence reflects healthy mangrove and aquatic ecosystems in the Sundarbans.
- Better survival of young crocodiles indicates quality breeding habitats still exist despite human and climatic pressures.
Broader Ecological Importance
- Stability of crocodile populations may enhance the resilience of mangrove ecosystems against threats such as: Human encroachment. Frequent cyclones. Sea-level rise and erosion.
- Acts as an indicator species, showing that the delta’s food web is still functioning.
Policy Gaps and Concerns
- The Wildlife Act gives blanket protection but is reactive, not anticipatory.
- Climate change threats like rising salinity and habitat loss are not adequately addressed.
- Other reptile and amphibian species remain under-protected, often overshadowed by land-use and fishery concerns.
Lessons for Conservation
- Success came from institutional investment, not public affection for crocodiles.
- Similar targeted recovery plans are needed for other neglected species.
- Public communication strategies should highlight ecological importance of lesser-known species.
- Climate integration is critical: Saltwater crocodiles can adapt to varying salinity, but many freshwater reptiles cannot. Measures like assisted breeding and identifying climate refuges are necessary.
CROCODILES IN INDIA
India is home to three crocodilian species:
- Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris)
- Also called marsh crocodile.
- Found widely in freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.
- Distribution: Indian subcontinent (India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan).
- Status: Vulnerable (IUCN).
- Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
- World’s largest living reptile.
- Found in coastal areas, estuaries, and mangrove swamps.
- Distribution: Odisha (Bhitarkanika), Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Sundarbans.
- Status: Least Concern (IUCN), but protected in India.
- Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus)
- Has a long, narrow snout with sharp teeth.
- Strictly river-dwelling species.
- Distribution: Chambal, Girwa, Son, and other rivers in north India.
- Status: Critically Endangered (IUCN).
Major Crocodile Sanctuaries and Habitats in India
- Bhitarkanika National Park (Odisha) – famous for saltwater crocodiles.
- Crocodile Conservation Project (Crocodile Bank, Chennai, Tamil Nadu) – set up by Romulus Whitaker.
- Chambal River Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh) – important for gharial.
- National Chambal Sanctuary (Tri-state region) – gharial, mugger, and turtles.
- Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary (Odisha) – mugger crocodiles.
Conclusion
The rise in Sundarban crocodiles proves that inclusive conservation policies can safeguard overlooked species. India must adopt a broader approach that combines legal protection, habitat recovery, and climate adaptation to secure its diverse biodiversity
ONLINE GAMING BAN AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
TOPIC: (GS2) GOVERNANCE: THE HINDU
The Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Bill, 2025 was passed in Parliament without debate, banning online real money games while allowing e-sports and casual games.
Key Features of the Bill
- Prohibits all online real money games.
- Aims to promote e-sports and social gaming.
- Was introduced and cleared without consultations with industry or States.
Economic Fallout
- Online gaming was a fast-growing sector, attracting heavy foreign investment.
- The sudden ban may discourage global investors, who now see Indian policy as unpredictable.
- The industry was expected to create over 1.5 lakh jobs by 2025 across programming, design, customer support, and analytics.
- The ban cuts off an expected ₹17,000 crore in GST revenue, hurting both the Centre and States.
Arguments Behind the Ban
- Government’s main concerns: Players facing financial ruin. Addiction resembling drug abuse.
- However, critics argue that regulation, not prohibition, would better address these harms.
- Some States (e.g., Tamil Nadu) were already working on balanced regulatory models.
Responsible Gaming Tools Ignored
- The industry was adopting global safeguards such as: Age-gating for minors. Deposit and time limits. Self-exclusion mechanisms. KYC and anti-money laundering checks. Bot detection and ethical advertising.
- By banning legal operators, players may shift to illegal offshore apps that lack these protections, increasing risks of fraud and unsafe practices.
Constitutional and Federal Concerns
- Article 19(1)(g) guarantees the right to practise any trade or profession; the ban restricts this right.
- Gambling and betting are State subjects, but the Union acted without State consultation, raising federalism issues.
- Courts have consistently upheld the legitimacy of games of skill, creating a grey area now complicated by the blanket ban.
Need for a Balanced Approach
- The choice is not between prohibition and total freedom.
- A licensing and regulatory framework with strict compliance rules and predictable taxation would: Protect players. Ensure revenues. Encourage innovation and jobs.
- A complete ban risks driving gaming underground, weakening oversight and hurting the economy.
Conclusion
The online gaming ban, though intended to protect citizens, may harm jobs, revenue, and federal balance while encouraging illegal platforms. A regulated middle path would better align economic growth with consumer protection.