SC COLLEGIUM AND HC COLLEGIUMS CLARIFICATION BY CJI
TOPIC: (GS2) INDIAN POLITY: THE HINDU
Chief Justice of India (CJI) B.R. Gavai recently stated that the Supreme Court Collegium cannot impose names on High Court Collegiums for judicial appointments. His remarks come amid rising vacancies in High Courts across the country.
Background
- Judicial appointments in India are handled through the Collegium system, comprising senior judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.
- High Courts currently face 345 vacancies out of the sanctioned strength of 1,122 judges.
- There is an ongoing debate on broadening the selection pool to include lawyers from the Supreme Court Bar.
Collegium System
- The Collegium System is a mechanism in India for the appointment and transfer of judges in the Supreme Court and High Courts.
- It is not mentioned in the Constitution of India; rather, it evolved through judgments of the Supreme Court.
- The system gives primacy to the judiciary (instead of the executive) in judicial appointments, ensuring judicial independence.
Key Points from CJI’s Statement
- Autonomy of High Court Collegiums
- High Court Collegiums take the first decision on who should be recommended as judges.
- The Supreme Court Collegium can only suggest names, not enforce them.
- Federal Judicial Structure
- The CJI underlined that the Supreme Court and High Courts are equal in status within the federal setup.
- Neither can be considered superior or inferior to the other.
- Response to Bar’s Demand
- The Supreme Court Bar Association (SCBA) urged inclusion of SC lawyers in High Court judge selection.
- The CJI clarified that High Court Collegiums alone can initiate such recommendations.
Present Concerns
- Out of 1,122 sanctioned posts, only 777 judges are serving in 25 High Courts.
- Since November 2022, 29 recommendations made by the SC Collegium are still pending with the Central government.
- Delay in appointments affects judicial efficiency and leads to rising case pendency.
EVOLUTION OF THE COLLEGIUM SYSTEM, THROUGH THREE JUDGES CASES
1. First Judges Case (1981) – S.P. Gupta vs Union of India
- Court ruled that the Executive (Government) had primacy in judicial appointments.
- The recommendation of the Chief Justice of India (CJI) was not binding on the government.
- Thus, the Executive held more power than the judiciary in appointments.
2. Second Judges Case (1993) – Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association vs Union of India
- Overturned the First Judges Case.
- Held that CJI’s recommendation must be made in consultation with a collegium of senior-most judges.
- Introduced the Collegium System:
- For SC appointments → CJI + 2 senior-most judges.
- For HC appointments → CJI + 2 senior-most SC judges + concerned HC CJI.
- Judiciary now got primacy over the executive.
3. Third Judges Case (1998) – Presidential Reference
- Expanded the Collegium.
- Collegium for SC appointments = CJI + 4 senior-most judges.
- For HC appointments = CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges + HC collegium.
- Gave clarity on consultation process and made the system more robust.
Present Situation
- Today, the Collegium System (CJI + 4 senior-most SC judges) recommends appointments and transfers.
- The government can ask for reconsideration once, but if the Collegium reiterates, the recommendation is binding.
- Attempts to replace it with NJAC (National Judicial Appointments Commission) through the 99th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2014 were struck down by the SC in 2015, calling it unconstitutional.
Conclusion
The CJI’s remarks reaffirm the independence of High Court Collegiums in judicial appointments. While the SC Collegium plays a guiding role, the first authority rests with the High Courts, highlighting the federal balance in India’s judiciary.
MAJOR GST SHAKE-UP: RATIONALISATION OF TAX SLABS
TOPIC: (GS3) ECONOMY: THE HINDU
The Centre has proposed major reforms in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) structure by removing the 12% and 28% slabs. The plan aims to simplify the tax system, ease the burden on consumers, and boost compliance.
Goods and Services Tax (GST)
- GST is a single indirect tax system introduced to replace multiple central and state taxes like excise duty, service tax, VAT, etc.
- It was launched in India on 1st July 2017.
- It is a destination-based tax (collected at the place of consumption, not origin).
- It is levied on the supply of goods and services, with exceptions such as alcohol (for human consumption), petroleum products (currently outside GST), and electricity.
- Over time, concerns arose about its complexity, revenue leakages, and inverted duty structures.
Key Features of the Proposal
- The government is now pushing for “next-generation GST reforms” to make the system more efficient.
- Removal of 12% and 28% Slabs: Goods in the 12% category will mostly move to the 5% rate. Nearly 90% of items in the 28% slab will shift to 18%.
- Introduction of Two Special Rates: Ultra-low rate (<1%) for precious metals like gold, silver, and semi-precious stones. High “sin rate” (40%) only for 5–7 harmful products such as tobacco and gutka.
- No Additional Cess: Cess charges will not be added over the GST rates.
Revenue Implications
- 28% slab contributes ~11% of GST revenue, while 12% gives ~5%.
- Majority of revenue (~67%) already comes from the 18% slab.
- Government expects short-term revenue dip but hopes higher consumption and better compliance will compensate.
Impact on Consumers and Industry
- Lower tax on aspirational goods such as air conditioners and appliances.
- Everyday items like toothpaste, soap, and shampoo could become cheaper.
- Uniform tax rates on similar products (e.g., all savouries taxed alike).
Other Reform Measures
- Ease of Living: Faster registration, pre-filled returns, and quicker refunds using technology.
- Fixing Inverted Duty Structure: Aligning input and output tax rates to prevent working capital blockages for businesses.
GST – CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT
- The Constitution (One Hundred and First) Amendment Act, 2016 enabled the introduction of GST in India.
- Key provisions:
- Inserted Article 246A – gives both Parliament and State Legislatures power to make laws on GST.
- Inserted Article 269A – provides for levy and collection of IGST on inter-state trade, which is shared between Centre and States.
- Inserted Article 279A – provides for the creation of the GST Council (Union Finance Minister + State Finance Ministers) to recommend tax rates, exemptions, model laws, etc.
- Amended Seventh Schedule – subsumed many taxes of Union and States under GST.
Conclusion
The proposed GST reforms aim to simplify the tax system, reduce consumer burden, and widen the tax base. While there may be an initial fall in revenue, increased consumption and better compliance are expected to balance it out, making the GST framework more transparent and growth-friendly.
THE POLITICS OF INSURGENCY AND DECLINE OF NAXALISM
TOPIC: (GS3) SECURITY: THE HINDU
Union Home Minister recently stated that the end of Naxalism is near and could be achieved by mid-2026. This comes as security forces intensify operations, with data showing a significant reduction in Maoist presence and violence.
Background
- Naxalism began in the late 1960s with the call of “Spring Thunder Over India” in West Bengal.
- Inspired by global revolutionary icons like Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Che Guevara, it drew youth, intellectuals, and marginalised groups.
- Over time, the movement fragmented and shifted mainly to the forested belts of central India (Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh).
- The initial ideological zeal gradually gave way to factionalism and violence.
Decline of the Movement
Loss of Ideological Appeal
- The early promise of an egalitarian struggle weakened as violence became indiscriminate.
- Splits among leaders like Charu Mazumdar, Kanu Sanyal, and Kondapalli Seetharamaiah diluted its unity.
Territorial Shrinkage
- Core areas such as the Dandakaranya region (Bastar, Gadchiroli, adjoining states) remain, but dominance has reduced.
- Internal disputes and leadership changes, especially after Ganapathi’s removal in 2018, weakened the cadre.
Security Operations
- From 2024, intensified offensives were launched under Home Ministry directions.
- Maoist sources themselves admitted that 357 cadres were killed in a single year, over one-third of them women.
- Sustained policing and coordinated inter-state operations further reduced their influence.
Key Issues
- False Dawns: Earlier predictions of Naxalism’s end (1970s, late 20th century) proved premature. Current decline, however, appears deeper and more structural.
- Urban Naxals Debate: The term is often misused today to describe critical intellectuals, who differ greatly from the original ideologically-driven movement.
- Checks on Force: Unlike global counter-terror tactics, India historically used restraint, focusing on a mix of policing and development.
Significance
- A decline in Maoist violence signals weakening of ideologically-driven insurgency in India.
- However, mislabelling dissent as “urban naxalism” risks policy missteps and unintended consequences.
- A nuanced understanding is essential to prevent resurgence and address underlying socio-economic grievances.
Government measures to address Naxalism:
Security Measures
- Deployment of Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) in affected areas.
- Special Forces & Commando Battalions (CoBRA) trained for jungle warfare.
- Setting up of Unified Command in some states for coordinated action.
Development Measures
- Road Connectivity Projects in Left Wing Extremism (LWE)-affected areas.
- Implementation of Integrated Action Plan (IAP) for infrastructure and basic services in tribal regions.
- Skill development and employment programs like ROSHNI and Skill Development Scheme for Naxal areas.
Governance & Rights Measures
- Implementation of PESA Act (1996) and Forest Rights Act (2006) to empower tribal communities.
- Strengthening of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in tribal belts.
Rehabilitation Measures
- Surrender and Rehabilitation Policy offering financial assistance, skill training, and jobs to surrendered Naxals.
Conclusion
The gradual fall of Naxalism marks a major shift in India’s internal security landscape. While stronger security responses have weakened the movement, the real test lies in addressing tribal and rural distress that once fuelled insurgency. Misclassification of dissent must be avoided to ensure a just and lasting peace.
WHY MAHARASHTRA’S SMALL FARMERS WELCOME THE U.K. FTA
TOPIC: (GS2) INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: THE HINDU
The India–U.K. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) has removed tariffs on Indian grapes entering the U.K. market. This reform is expected to boost incomes of small and marginal farmers in Maharashtra, the grape hub of India.
Background
- Maharashtra as Grape Capital: Nashik district leads grape production in India. In 2023–24, India exported over 3 lakh metric tonnes of grapes worth $400 million.
- U.K. as Key Market: U.K. is one of India’s largest grape importers. Earlier, Indian grapes faced 8% duty, while competitors like South Africa and Chile exported duty-free.
- FTA Impact: Duty removal makes Indian grapes more competitive in the global market.
Benefits for Farmers
- Higher Returns: Farmers can now earn 15% more as tariff costs are eliminated.
- Improved Livelihoods: Families are able to invest in education, housing, and expansion of landholdings.
- Encouragement to Youth: Younger farmers are experimenting with better farming techniques and considering agri-allied businesses.
Collective Farming Model – Sahyadri Farms
- Farmer Producer Company (FPC): Over 14,000 small and marginal farmers are part of Sahyadri Farms.
- Market Access: Collective farming helps smallholders pool resources, ensure volumes, and meet international demand.
- Quality Standards: Farmers follow strict testing of soil, vineyards, and produce to meet European norms (uniform size, taste, and chemical-free).
- Export Success: Sahyadri exports 22,000 metric tonnes annually, 30% of which goes to the U.K., with a market share of 17% in grape exports.
Wider Implications of the FTA
- Diversification of Crops: Besides grapes, fruits like mango, pomegranate, and citrus could also benefit.
- Rising Domestic Standards: Compliance with global food safety norms will improve quality in Indian markets too.
- Boost to Collective Farming: With 90% of Indian farmers being small or marginal, the FTA highlights the need for pooling resources for global competitiveness.
FARMER PRODUCER COMPANY (FPC)
A Farmer Producer Company (FPC) is a type of company formed by farmers under the Companies Act, 1956 (later continued in the Companies Act, 2013). It combines the benefits of a cooperative society and a private limited company.
Who can form it?
- Minimum 10 or more farmers can come together to form an FPC.
- Institutions or groups of farmers can also be members.
Key Features:
- Works like a company but is run by farmers as shareholders.
- Limited liability of members (like a company).
- One member–one vote principle (like cooperatives).
Functions:
- Bulk purchase of seeds, fertilizers, and inputs at cheaper rates.
- Collective marketing of farm produce to ensure better prices.
- Facilitation of storage, processing, packaging, and branding.
- Providing training, technical support, and credit facilities.
Conclusion
The India–U.K. FTA is a significant opportunity for small farmers in Maharashtra, turning grape cultivation into a profitable venture through collective farming. It not only promises better global competitiveness but also strengthens farmer livelihoods and sets higher quality benchmarks for Indian agriculture.
PM MODI’S INDEPENDENCE DAY ADDRESS, CALL FOR SELF-RELIANCE AND REFORMS
TOPIC: (GS2) INDIAN POLITY: THE HINDU
On Independence Day, Prime Minister Narendra Modi delivered his longest address (103 minutes), focusing on self-reliance, economic reforms, defence indigenisation, employment creation, and demographic challenges.
Key Highlights of the Speech
Self-Reliance as National Strength
- PM underlined that self-respect (aatma-samman) is linked to self-reliance (aatmanirbharta).
- Stressed that self-reliance is not limited to trade balance, but extends to defence, economy, technology, and agriculture.
- Operation Sindoor showcased success of Indian-made arms and systems.
Economic Reforms and GST 2.0
- Announcement of two high-powered task forces:
- Second Generation GST Reforms: to simplify compliance and reduce prices of essentials (to be rolled out by Diwali).
- Next-Gen Economic Reforms: to strengthen India’s competitiveness globally.
- Focus on reducing compliance burden for MSMEs, ensuring relief from arbitrary legal actions.
Employment Generation
- Launch of Pradhan Mantri Viksit Bharat Rozgar Yojana with a ₹1 lakh crore corpus.
- ₹15,000 one-time grant for first-time employees in private sector. Incentives to companies for creating new jobs.
Technology & Innovation Push
- Commitment to ‘Made-in-India’ semiconductor chips by end of 2025.
- Six semiconductor units operational, four more approved.
- Emphasis on AI, cybersecurity, deep-tech, and operating systems to boost global competitiveness.
Defence & Security Dimension
- Highlighted success of anti-Naxal operations, where “terror corridors” have become “green corridors” (notably in Chhattisgarh).
- Cautioned against a “conspiracy to alter demographic character” in border areas.
- Announcement of a High-Powered Demographic Mission to counter such challenges.
Agriculture and Farmers’ Interests
- Reiterated protection of Indian farmers in global negotiations.
- Pitched for reducing dependence on imported fertilizers to ensure self-sufficiency in agriculture inputs.
Significance of the Speech
- Marks strategic continuity of the government’s focus on Aatmanirbhar Bharat.
- Attempts to link economic growth, defence preparedness, and demographic security under one vision.
- Seen as a policy roadmap ahead of major elections and global trade negotiations.
- Notable for being the longest Independence Day speech by any Indian PM (103 minutes).
Conclusion
The Independence Day address underscored India’s aspiration to emerge as a self-reliant, tech-driven, secure, and farmer-centric economy. By combining reforms in GST, employment, defence, and semiconductors, the roadmap seeks to balance immediate economic relief with long-term structural transformation.
INDIGENOUS AIR DEFENCE SYSTEM ‘SUDARSHAN CHAKRA’ BY 2035
TOPIC: (GS3) SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: THE HINDU
On Independence Day, PM Narendra Modi announced ‘Sudarshan Chakra’, an indigenous air defence shield to be built by 2035, aimed at protecting both strategic and civilian infrastructure from aerial threats.
Key Highlights
1. Sudarshan Chakra Mission
- Aims to develop a comprehensive air defence system by 2035.
- Will provide security cover to strategic installations and civilian hubs such as:
- Hospitals
- Railway stations
- Religious centres
- Inspired by Lord Krishna’s mythological shield symbolising protection.
2. Strategic Significance
- Designed not only to neutralise enemy attacks but also to enable strong retaliation.
- Will expand India’s national security shield over the next decade.
- Citizens will feel safe under a modernised, self-reliant security cover.
3. Current Capabilities & Lessons from Operation Sindoor
- India currently deploys Russian S-400 missile systems, which intercepted Pakistani missiles and drones during Operation Sindoor (May 2025).
- Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS) ensured superiority against Pakistan.
- Operation Sindoor showcased the power of indigenous weapons, marking a step towards strategic autonomy.
4. Self-Reliance in Defence
- PM stressed that national security cannot rest on foreign dependence.
- Indigenous capability allows India to act independently and decisively.
- Defence self-reliance seen as foundation for Viksit Bharat (Developed India 2047).
5. Other Defence & Strategic Announcements
- Indus Waters Treaty termed “unjust”; India will prioritise farmers’ interests, ending compromises on water rights.
- Call for innovation in jet engine development, comparing it with India’s achievements in COVID-19 vaccine production and UPI digital payments.
- Youth and scientists urged to take defence innovation as a national challenge.
Significance
- Marks a decade-long roadmap for defence indigenisation.
- Strengthens India’s position as a nation aiming to reduce strategic vulnerabilities.
- Bridges civilian safety with military preparedness, ensuring holistic national security.
- Reinforces self-reliance as the core of India’s sovereignty, strength, and dignity.
IN-SPACE
TOPIC: (GS3) SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: PIB
A Pune-based startup, Astrophel Aerospace, has signed an MoU with IN-SPACe to use ISRO’s facilities for testing and technical support in developing semi-cryogenic propulsion systems like turbopumps and engine modules. This shows growing private participation in India’s space sector.
WHAT IS IN-SPACE:
- The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) is an autonomous body under the Department of Space (DoS).
- It was created as part of India’s space sector reforms to encourage private involvement in space-related activities.
Functions of IN-SPACe
- Acts as a single-window agency for promoting, authorizing, and supervising private space activities.
- Facilitates participation of non-governmental entities (NGEs) in building satellites, launch vehicles, and space-based services.
- Provides access to ISRO’s infrastructure such as testing facilities, launchpads, and data centers.
- Encourages establishment of new space infrastructure by private players.
- Serves as a link between ISRO and private companies, ensuring effective use of India’s space resources.
Role in Space Sector Development
- Evaluates the needs of startups, industries, and research institutions.
- Works with ISRO to accommodate private sector requirements in projects and collaborations.
- Promotes innovation in areas like satellite communication, navigation, and earth observation.
Organizational Structure
IN-SPACe functions through three main directorates:
- Promotion Directorate (PD) – Encourages private sector participation.
- Technical Directorate (TD) – Provides technical review and guidance.
- Program Management and Authorization Directorate (PMAD) – Handles approvals and project management.
KEY BODIES:
Antrix Corporation Limited (1992) – Commercial Arm
- Functions under ISRO but registered as a government-owned company.
- Handles commercial marketing of ISRO products, satellites, and services.
- Manages launch services for foreign satellites.
- Deals with technology transfer agreements and contracts with global clients.
NewSpace India Limited (NSIL, 2019) – Commercial Execution Arm
- A Central Public Sector Enterprise under the Department of Space.
- Unlike Antrix (which only marketed), NSIL actually executes commercial contracts.
- Responsible for building and launching satellites in partnership with Indian industry.
- Helps in transfer of ISRO technologies to private companies.
Conclusion
IN-SPACe is a vital step in India’s space reforms. By acting as a bridge between ISRO and private innovators, it will strengthen India’s position in the global space economy.
SABHASAAR AI TOOL
TOPIC: (GS3) SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: PIB
The Union Government is set to launch ‘SabhaSaar’, an AI-powered tool in Tripura on Independence Day 2025, to automatically prepare minutes of Gram Sabha meetings.
About SabhaSaar
- SabhaSaar is an AI-based platform that generates structured minutes of Gram Sabha meetings.
- A Gram Sabha is the basic unit of the Panchayati Raj system, comprising all registered voters of a Gram Panchayat.
Key Features
- Converts audio/video recordings of Gram Sabha meetings into structured minutes.
- Accessible via e-GramSwaraj portal using Panchayat officials’ login credentials.
- Built on Bhashini, the Government’s AI-driven language translation platform.
- Provides automatic transcription, translation, and summarisation of meetings.
- Supports multiple Indian languages (Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Marathi, Gujarati, etc.) along with English.
- Ensures uniformity in documentation of Gram Sabha proceedings across India.
Significance
- Streamlines record-keeping for Panchayats and rural administration.
- Reduces manual workload of officials and ensures accuracy in documentation.
- Enhances transparency and accountability in grassroots governance.
- Supports digital inclusion by bridging language and literacy gaps.
- Facilitates faster decision-making in rural development programmes.
- Provides easy access to meeting insights for citizens, officials, and policymakers.
Conclusion
The SabhaSaar AI Tool marks a significant step in combining AI with governance. By ensuring standardised, accessible, and multilingual records of Gram Sabha proceedings, it strengthens participatory democracy and improves the functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).